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{{dablink|For the mythological stories about [[Kerala]], see [[Kerala Kingdom]], for district of Kuala Lumpur, see [[Cheras, Kuala Lumpur]], the town in Spain, see [[Chera, Valencia]], for the town in Selangor, see [[Cheras, Selangor]].}} |
{{dablink|For the medieval [[Kerala Varma]] dynasty see [[Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras)]] For the mythological stories about [[Kerala]], see [[Kerala Kingdom]], for district of Kuala Lumpur, see [[Cheras, Kuala Lumpur]], the town in Spain, see [[Chera, Valencia]], for the town in Selangor, see [[Cheras, Selangor]].}} |
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{{Infobox |
{{Infobox former country |
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|native_name = சேரர் |
|native_name = சேரர் |
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|conventional_long_name = Chera Kingdom |
|conventional_long_name = Chera Kingdom, modern [[Kongu Nadu]] |
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|common_name = |
|common_name = [[Kongu Nadu]] |
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|continent = Asia |
|continent = Asia |
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|region = South-East Asia |
|region = South-East Asia |
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|country = India |
|country = India |
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|era = Middle Ages |
|era = Middle Ages |
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|status = |
|status = |
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|event_start = |
|event_start = |
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|year_start = c. 5th century BCE |
|year_start = c. 5th century BCE |
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|date_start = |
|date_start = |
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|event1 = |
|event1 = |
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|date_event1 = |
|date_event1 = |
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|event_end = |
|event_end = |
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|year_end = |
|year_end = c. 10th century CE |
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|event2 = Rise of the Second Line of Cheras |
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|date_event1 = 800 AD |
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|event_end = |
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|year_end = 1102 AD |
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|p1 = |
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|flag_p1 = |
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|s1 = Saamoothiri|Zamorins |
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|flag_s1 = |
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|s2 = Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi |
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|flag_s2 = Flag of the Kingdom of Cochin.svg |
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|s3 = Travancore |
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|flag_s3 = Travancore.jpg |
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|image_coat = |
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|image_map = Chera territoriesa.png |
|image_map = Chera territoriesa.png |
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|image_map_caption = |
|image_map_caption = Extent of Chera Empire |
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|capital = '''Early Cheras:''' ([[Vanchi Muthur]] |
|capital = '''Early Cheras:''' ([[Vanchi Muthur]] [[Karuvur]], modern [[Karur]]<br /> |
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|common_language = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] |
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|religion = [[ |
|religion = [[Vedic religion]] |
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|government_type = |
|government_type = [[Sabhā]] |
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|leader1 = Nedum Cheralathan |
|leader1 = Nedum Cheralathan |
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|year_leader1 = |
|year_leader1 = |
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|leader2 = [[Senguttuvan|Cheran Senguttuvan]] |
|leader2 = [[Senguttuvan|Cheran Senguttuvan]] |
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|year_leader2 = |
|year_leader2 = |
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|title_leader = |
|title_leader = |
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|legislature = |
|legislature = |
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|stat_year1 = |
|stat_year1 = |
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|stat_area1 = |
|stat_area1 = |
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|today = {{flag|India}} |
|today = {{flag|India}} |
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}} |
}} |
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The term '''Chera Dynasty''' ({{lang-ta|சேரர் }} |
The term '''Chera Dynasty''' ({{lang-ta|சேரர் }} refers to the [[Sangam period]] dynasty that ruled before the [[Sangam period|Sangam]] era until the tenth century. |
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The early Cheras ruled |
The early Cheras ruled [[Kongu Nadu]]<ref>http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-pRNIffvzoII/TZwHynIIPwI/AAAAAAAABIE/IOunDaXTaGk/s1600/knl+%25282%2529.jpeg</ref> from time immemorial. The dynasty probably added the Southern Nagapattanam and [[Thiruvarur]] districts after the marriage of the second king of the first Chera Dynasty into the royal family of the [[Chola]]s. [[Musiri]] or Muziris, the famous sea port, was in the Chera kingdom and throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to [[Kongu Nadu]], with [[spice]]s, [[ivory]], [[timber]], [[pearl]]s and [[Gemstone|gem]]s being exported to the [[Middle East]] and to [[southern Europe]]. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the [[Karur]] and Coimabtore districts. Their ancient capital was [[Vanchi Muthur]] or modern [[Karur]]. King [[Senguttuvan]] was the most famous and powerful Chera king. |
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The second dynasty, [[Kulasekhara]]s, ruled from the outskirts of [[Muziris]] on the banks of River [[Periyar]] called Mahodayapuram ([[Kodungallur]]).<ref>(Ancient name, Chully ref: Akam. 149)</ref> Though never, regained the old status in the [[Peninsula]], Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in 12th century as a result of continuous [[Chola]] invasions. |
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==Origins== |
==Origins== |
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In the [[Sangam period|Sangam]] [[Tamil language|Tamil]] lexicon the word ''Chera'' meaning "hill country", derived from ''Cheral'', meaning "declivity or mountain slope" in [[Classical Tamil]] language |
In the [[Sangam period|Sangam]] [[Tamil language|Tamil]] lexicon the word ''Chera'' meaning "hill country", derived from ''Cheral'', meaning "declivity or mountain slope" in [[Classical Tamil]] language |
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The sources available regarding the early Chera Kings are the anthologies of [[Sangam literature]], [[coins]] from [[Kongu Nadu]] and other literature. The Chera country had four Vanchis (capitals), the prime at [[Karuvur|Karur]] and the later ones at [[Dharapuram]], [[Mulanur]] and Vilangil [[Rasipuram]]. The Chera and [[Chola Nadu]] were separated by the Karaipottanaru and [[Madukkarai wall]]. |
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⚫ | The Cheras, the [[Pandyas]] and the [[Cholas]] are the three ruling dynasties of the southern region (''[[Bharatavarsha]]'') in the [[Hindu]] epic of the [[Ramayana]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/dutt/rama07.htm |title=The Ramayana and Mahabharata: Book VII: In the Nilgiri Mountains |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=V.Jayaram |url=http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/ramayana/bk07.asp |title=The Ramayana Kishkindha |publisher=Hinduwebsite.com |date=2007-01-09 |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> They are also mentioned in the [[Aitareya Aranyaka]], and the [[Mahabharata]], where they take the side of the [[Pandavas]] in the [[Kurukshetra War]].<ref name="tamilnation.org">[http://www.tamilnation.org/heritage/chera/index.htm ]{{dead link|date=March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/sars238/shortencybrit.html |title=Britannica Article on Dravidian |publisher=Ccat.sas.upenn.edu |date=2004-01-09 |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bvashram.org/articles/105/1/Mahabharata-The-Great-War-and-World-History/Page1.html |title=Mahabharata: The Great War and World History |publisher=Bvashram.org |date= |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/10-07/features806.htm |title=The Sampradaya Sun - Independent Vaisnava News - Feature Stories - October 2007 |publisher=Harekrsna.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> [[Pillars of Ashoka|Ashoka's edicts]] mention an independent dynasty known by the name ''Ketalaputho'' who were outside [[Ashoka]]'s empire in 261 BC. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], the [[Roman historian]] of the 1st century, who probably visited [[Kerala]], called the area ''Caelobothras'' in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.<ref>[http://www.ntz.info/gen/n02081.html# Cerobothra]</ref> The unknown author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' mentions Chera as ''Cerobothra'' whose capital is [[Karur]]. |
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The only sources available regarding the early Chera Kings are the anthologies of [[Sangam literature]], now generally agreed to belong to the first few centuries AD and a few mentions in the writings of [[ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] such as the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]].<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, pp 106</ref> |
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The earliest extant Tamil literary works, such as the [[Kalittokai]], mention a continent called [[Kumari Kandam]], which was believed to have been located to the South of the present-day [[Kanyakumari]] tens of thousands of years ago, between the then [[Kumari]] and Pahruli rivers. [[Pandyan]] kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras, supposedly ruled this country. They fought and defeated the [[Nāga]]s, who might have been a non-[[Dravidian people]], or another species of living beings. [[Kalittokai]] again mentions a war between the combined forces of [[Villavar]]s and the [[Meenavar]]s (the Cheras and the [[Pandyas]] respectively), and the [[Nāga]]s, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, and subsequently [[Central India]] to the [[Naga]]s. |
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⚫ | The Cheras, the [[Pandyas]] and the [[Cholas]] are the three ruling dynasties of the southern region (''[[Bharatavarsha]]'') in the [[Hindu]] epic of the [[Ramayana]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/dutt/rama07.htm |title=The Ramayana and Mahabharata: Book VII: In the Nilgiri Mountains |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=V.Jayaram |url=http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/ramayana/bk07.asp |title=The Ramayana Kishkindha |publisher=Hinduwebsite.com |date=2007-01-09 |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> They are also mentioned in the [[Aitareya Aranyaka]], and the [[Mahabharata]], where they take the side of the [[Pandavas]] in the [[Kurukshetra War]].<ref name="tamilnation.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/sars238/shortencybrit.html |title=Britannica Article on Dravidian |publisher=Ccat.sas.upenn.edu |date=2004-01-09 |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bvashram.org/articles/105/1/Mahabharata-The-Great-War-and-World-History/Page1.html |title=Mahabharata: The Great War and World History |publisher=Bvashram.org |date= |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/10-07/features806.htm |title=The Sampradaya Sun - Independent Vaisnava News - Feature Stories - October 2007 |publisher=Harekrsna.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> |
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Archaeology has found epigraphic evidence of the early Cheras in the recorded history of [[South India]]:<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm See report in ''Frontline'', June/July 2003]</ref> some inscriptions trace the dynasty from the [[Purana|Puranic]] kings of the Lunar dynasty. The most important inscription is that at [[Pugalur]] (Aranattarmalai) which refers to three generations of Chera Rulers; Athan Cheral Irumporai, his son Perumkadungo and his grandson Ilamkadungo when Perumkadungo was ruler and Ilamkadungo appointed prince. |
Archaeology has found epigraphic evidence of the early Cheras in the recorded history of [[South India]]:<ref>[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm See report in ''Frontline'', June/July 2003]</ref> some inscriptions trace the dynasty from the [[Purana|Puranic]] kings of the Lunar dynasty. The most important inscription is that at [[Pugalur]] (Aranattarmalai) which refers to three generations of Chera Rulers; Athan Cheral Irumporai, his son Perumkadungo and his grandson Ilamkadungo when Perumkadungo was ruler and Ilamkadungo appointed prince. |
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[[Sangam literature]] is full of names of kings and princes, along with the poets who extolled them but these are not worked into connected history so far and the chronology is not settled. Their then capital is believed to be modern [[Karur]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. |
[[Sangam literature]] is full of names of kings and princes, along with the poets who extolled them but these are not worked into connected history so far and the chronology is not settled. Their then capital is believed to be modern [[Karur]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. |
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The [[Satyaputra]]s are an offshoot of the Chera dynasty and they ruled the opposite bank of the Kaveri which was called Mazha [[Kongu Nadu]]. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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The origin and seat of the [[Sangam period]] [[Cheras]] is [[Kongu Nadu]].<ref name="books.google.co.in">http://books.google.co.in/books?id=FnB3k8fx5oEC&pg=PA156&dq=coimbatore+salem+chera+sovereign&hl=en&ei=GTOgTcriOonxrQfO0aj-Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=coimbatore%20salem%20chera%20sovereign&f=false</ref><ref>http://books.google.co.in/books?id=FnB3k8fx5oEC&pg=PA230&dq=chera+nerumangalam&hl=en&ei=bTOgTY-hJcyHrAfig9n0Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=chera%20nerumangalam&f=false</ref> [[Chera]] is also referred to as '''Kongan''' many times. His mountains are the [[Kolli Malai]]s and his seat [[Karur|Karuvur]] on the banks of [[Amaravati River|Anporunai]]. |
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{{Template:Keralahistory}} |
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The |
The Chera, [[Chola]] and [[Pandya]] are traditional [[Tamil language|Tamil]] siblings and descendants of the [[Monarch|Kings]] of ancient [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamilakam]], [[Chera]] and [[Pandya]] meaning ''old country'', Cheras ruled [[Kongu Nadu]], [[Chola]] meaning ''new country''. The [[Cholas]] ruled in the eastern [[Coromandel Coast]] and the [[Pandya]]s in the South Central Peninsula. Chera rulers engaged in frequent intermarriage as well as warfare with the [[Pandyas]] and [[Cholas]]. |
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In early [[Tamil literature]] the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general |
In early [[Tamil literature]] the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and the Kings are in the following order: |
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# ''Imayavaramban Kudako Nedum Cheralathan'' |
# ''Imayavaramban Kudako Nedum Cheralathan'' |
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# ''Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai'' |
# ''Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai'' |
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His queen was Veliyan Nallini. Their son Imayavaramban Kudako Nedum Cheralathan is praised in the second pathu of [[Pathirruppaththu]], the pathikam of this decade refers to his parents, though they are not praised in the first pathu which is blank. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan, while the mother of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was [[Chola]] Princess Manikilli. Chelva Kadunko Vazhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral Irumporai and Porayan Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son of Aazhiyathan and Ilam Cheral Irumporai was the son of a Chera ruler Kuttuvan Irumporai,son of Mantharan Cheral Irumporai, the celebrated ancestor of ninth King Ilam Cheral Irumporai. |
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Illango Atikal wrote the legendary epic ''Silapathikararam'' sitting at a Jain monastery in Trikkanamathilakam. ''Silapathikararam'' describes the Chera king Senguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (''Veerakallu'') for the |
Illango Atikal wrote the legendary epic ''Silapathikararam'' sitting at a Jain monastery in Trikkanamathilakam. ''Silapathikararam'' describes the Chera king Senguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (''Veerakallu'') for the Goddess Pattini. '[[Purananuru]]' refers to a certain Udiyan Cheral. It is said that he fed the rival armies during the [[Kurukshetra war]]. ''Imayavaramban'' Neduncheralathan, another [[Sangam Age]] King claimed to have conquered [[Bharatavarsha]] up to the [[Himalayas]] and to have inscribed his emblem on the face of the mountains. [[Senguttuvan]] was another famous Chera, whose contemporary [[Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka]] of [[Lanka]] according to [[Mahavamsa]] visited the Chera country.<ref>See Mahavamsa – http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since Senguttuvan (Kadal pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of [[Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka]] he was the Chera King during 170–185 AD.</ref> Manimekalai written by Chathanar describes the city of Vanchi as Buddhist centre. |
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[[File:South india in the Sangam period.jpg|thumb|South india in the Sangam period]] |
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===Extent and trade=== |
===Extent and trade=== |
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The early Cheras controlled a large territory of the [[Kongu]] region |
The early Cheras controlled a large territory of the [[Kongu Nadu]] region. They also ruled the Kodunthamizh regions of [[Travancore]] (Venadu) and the [[Malabar]] (Kudanadu) west coast through a [[viceroy]] <ref name="books.google.co.in"/> who oversaw the local [[kshatri]]s. |
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Throughout the era trade continued to bring prosperity to the area with [[spices]], [[ivory]], [[timber]], [[pearl]]s and [[Gemstone|gems]] being exported to [[Mesopotamia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[ancient Rome|Rome]], [[Phoenicia]] and [[Arabia]]. |
Throughout the era trade continued to bring prosperity to the area with [[spices]], [[ivory]], [[timber]], [[pearl]]s and [[Gemstone|gems]] being exported to [[Mesopotamia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[ancient Rome|Rome]], [[Phoenicia]] and [[Arabia]].[[Sangam]] Chera coins are found in [[Karur]], [[Namakkal]], [[Erode]], [[Dindigul]] and [[Coimbatore]] regions of modern-day [[Tamil Nadu]]. These foreigners were called ''[[Yavana]]'' in the ancient times</ref> Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of [[gold]] and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of '[[Kari]]' ([[Black pepper|Pepper]]) from Malainadu.<ref>http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&</ref> [[Musiri]] has been referred to by the author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' as an inland port probably near [[Musiri]]. |
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===Religion=== |
===Religion=== |
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It is believed that the Cheras were [[Shaivite| Shaivite Hindus]] .<ref>P. 104 ''Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological Association'' By Indian Anthropological Association</ref> Some kings of the dynasty referred to themselves as Vanavaramban, Imayavaramban etc.<ref>P. 15 ''The Ācārya, Śaṅkara of Kāladī: A Story'' By Savita R. Bhave, M. G. Gyaltsan, Muṣṭafá Amīn, 1933– Madugula, I S Madugula</ref> While Cheras had their own '[[Kottravai]]' |
It is believed that the Cheras were [[Shaivite| Shaivite Hindus]] .<ref>P. 104 ''Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological Association'' By Indian Anthropological Association</ref> Some kings of the dynasty referred to themselves as Vanavaramban, Imayavaramban etc.<ref>P. 15 ''The Ācārya, Śaṅkara of Kāladī: A Story'' By Savita R. Bhave, M. G. Gyaltsan, Muṣṭafá Amīn, 1933– Madugula, I S Madugula</ref> While Cheras had their own '[[Kottravai]]' ([[Kali]]) as [[Madukkarai wall|Madukkarai Sellandiyamman]]. Other religious traditions like [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] came to this area during the period of the Chera Kings. |
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===The Second dynasty=== |
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{{Main|Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras)}} |
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The Chera dynasty was revived in 800 CE with the rise of the [[Kulasekhara]]s who ruled from [[Kodungallur]]. Little is known about the Cheras between 3rd century and 8th centuries. An obscure dynasty, the [[Kalabhras]], invaded the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the [[Pallava]]s and the [[Pandyas]] in the 6th century. A [[Pandya]] Ruler, [[Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman]] (c.730 – 765 AD), mentioned in a number of [[Pandya]] [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscriptions]], was a prominent ruler during this period. He claims to have defeated a prominent Chera King. |
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The name of the Chera King is not known, however from the details of the battles between the [[Pandya]] and the Chera, the Chera territory ceded seems to have included the entire [[Malabar]] and [[Travancore]] (Kudanadu and Venadu) and the Southern [[Pandya]] country from [[Kanyakumari (town)|Kanyakumari]] to [[Thirunelveli]], the seat of the Cheras being in [[Karur]] [[Kongu Nadu]]. The Chera kings took the title of ''Perumal'' during this period and patronised the [[Vaishnavite]] sect. [[Kulasekara Alwar]] who ruled in the 8th century became a devotional [[Vaishnavite]] poet. [[Pallavas]] also mention in their inscriptions their battles with the Cheras. [[Pulakesin II]], in his [[Aihole]] inscription mentioned "'' [[Pulikesin II]], driving the [[Pallava]] behind the forts of [[Kanchi]], reached as far south as the [[Kaveri river]], and there caused prosperity to the [[Chola]], [[Chera]] and [[Pandya]]''".<ref>See Verse 31 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II – http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.htm</ref> |
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During the reign of [[Pandya]] [[Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan]] (765–790), the Cheras were still in [[Karur]] and were a close ally of the [[Pallavas]]. [[Pallavamalla Nadivarman]] defeated the [[Pandya Varaguna]] with the help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts between the [[Pallava]] court and the Chera country were common.<ref>See ''A History of South India'' – pp 146 – 147</ref> The Chera Kings [[Rajashekhara Varman]] and [[Kulashekhara Varman]] spearheaded Hindu religious movements in their roles as celebrated [[Saivite]] and [[Vaishnavite]] saints. [[Kulasekhara]] became one of the celebrated [[Alvars]] and his poems came to be called the ''[[Perumal thirumozhi]]''. |
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[[Kulashekhara Varma]]n ruled around the 8th and 9th centuries. He called himself ''[[Kongar]] Kon'' (the king of the Kongu people) hailing from Kollinagar ([[Karur]]). Though Kongar were defeated by Cheran [[Senguttuvan]] in the 2nd century AD, the Kongu region had been occupied by the [[Kongar]]s of [[Karnataka]] [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] around 470 AD. The title 'Kongar Kon' indicates Kulasekhara had regained control of Kongu from the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] around 800 AD. Other titles of Kulasekhara mentioned in the ''[[Perumal thirumozhi]]'' are [[Villavar]] Kon, Malayar Kon, Kollikkavalan, Koikkon and Koodal Nayagan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sriranganatha.tripod.com/id29.html |title=Kulasekara Alwar |publisher=Sriranganatha.tripod.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> [[Adi Shankara]] was his contemporary. ''[[Kongumandala Satakam]]'' also says that [[Rajashekhara Varman]] went to [[Kayilai]] with [[Sundarar]] from [[Kongu Nadu]]. |
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{{Template:Chera Dynasty}} |
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The kingdom perished in 1102 CE soon after the [[Chola]] King ransacked the Chera Capital at [[Kodungallur]]. As a result, the last of the [[Cheraman Perumal]], [[Rama Varma Kulashekhara]] moved to [[Kollam]] and ruled from there. He finally succeeded in driving away the [[Chola]]s but could not regain power due to the enmity he earned from the [[Brahmin]]s. His kingdom was confined to the South of [[Kerala]] and was called [[Venad]]. The [[Travancore dynasty]] originated from the remnants of the Second Chera Dynasy. |
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[[Rama Varma Kulashekhara]] (1090- 1102 AD) was the last king of the [[Chera Dynasty]] that ruled [[Kerala]] from 800- 1102 AD. After significant military success over the [[Chola]] dynasty he abdicated the throne.Rama Varma Kulashekhara ascended the throne during a period of severe crisis. [[Kulothunga Chola I]] had occupied [[Nanjanad]] and south [[Kerala]] and was proceeding towards [[Kollam]], the capital of the [[Venad]] kings in 1096 AD. Rama Varma resolved to beat back the [[Chola]]s and rallied all his patriotic forces. A large body of Chera army transformed into suicide squads (''Chavers''). |
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[[Image:Cheraman jumamasjid.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Cheraman Perumal]] Juma Masjid, believed to have been built upon the request of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler and probably the first [[Mosque]] in India]] |
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The capital city of [[Mahodayapuram]] (present [[Kodungallur]]) and surrounding places were devastated in the long war and the king, without even a palace of his own, is known to have stayed at alternative frugal accommodations. Towards the end of the war he shifted the capital from [[Mahodayapuram]] to [[Kollam]] and led a large army to stem the [[Chola]]s in the south. [[Kulothunga Chola I]] was defeated and withdrew towards [[Kottar]]. The [[Cholapuram]] records (1100 AD) that record the achievements of Kulothunga Chola refer to this. The Cholas could not regain their influence beyond [[Nanjanad]] after this defeat. The move from [[Mahodayapuram]] to [[Kollam]] however marked the end of the Kulashekhara Empire. [[Venad]] attained the status of an independent kingdom, of which [[Rama Varma Kulashekhara]] is regarded as the founder. |
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== List of kings == |
== List of kings == |
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# Perumchottu [[Uthiyan Cheralathan]] ''(Contemporary to [[Karikala Chola]])'' |
# Perumchottu [[Uthiyan Cheralathan]] ''(Contemporary to [[Karikala Chola]])'' |
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# Antuvancheral |
# Antuvancheral |
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# Kanaikal Irumporai |
# Kanaikal Irumporai |
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=== |
===Bhakti era Cheras=== |
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[[Kulashekhara Alwar]] and [[Cheraman Perumal (Nayanar)]] are famous [[Bhakti era]] Cheras. |
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# [[Kulashekhara Varman]] (800–820 AD) |
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# [[Rajashekhara Varman]] (820- 844 AD)- also called Cheraman Perumal. |
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# Sthanu Ravi Varman (844- 885 AD)- contemporary of [[Aditya I|Aditya Chola]] |
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# Rama Varma Kulashekhara (885- 917 AD) |
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# Goda Ravi Varma (917- 944 AD) |
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# Indu Kotha Varma (944- 962 AD) |
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# Bhaskara Ravi Varman I (962- 1019 AD) |
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# Bhaskara Ravi Varman II (1019- 1021 AD) |
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# Vira Kerala (1021- 1028 AD) |
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# Rajasimha (1028- 1043 AD) |
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# Bhaskara Ravi Varman III (1043–1082 AD) |
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# [[Rama Varma Kulashekhara]] (1090- 1102 AD)- also called Cheraman Perumal. |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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[[ |
[[Kongu Nadu]] [[Cheraman Perumal]] [[Ilango Adigal]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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</div> |
</div> |
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{{ |
'''{{Tamil Nadu}} |
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[[Category:Chera kingdom]] |
[[Category:Chera kingdom]] |
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[[it:Chera (famiglia)]] |
[[it:Chera (famiglia)]] |
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[[lt:Čera]] |
[[lt:Čera]] |
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[[ml:ചേരസാമ്രാജ്യം]] |
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[[mr:चेर साम्राज्य]] |
[[mr:चेर साम्राज्य]] |
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[[no:Chera-dynastiene]] |
[[no:Chera-dynastiene]] |
Revision as of 16:15, 26 April 2011
Chera Kingdom, modern Kongu Nadu சேரர் | |
---|---|
c. 5th century BCE–c. 10th century CE | |
Capital | Early Cheras: (Vanchi Muthur Karuvur, modern Karur |
Religion | Vedic religion |
Government | Sabhā |
Historical era | Middle Ages |
• Established | c. 5th century BCE |
• Disestablished | c. 10th century CE |
Today part of | India |
The term Chera Dynasty (Tamil: சேரர் refers to the Sangam period dynasty that ruled before the Sangam era until the tenth century.
The early Cheras ruled Kongu Nadu[1] from time immemorial. The dynasty probably added the Southern Nagapattanam and Thiruvarur districts after the marriage of the second king of the first Chera Dynasty into the royal family of the Cholas. Musiri or Muziris, the famous sea port, was in the Chera kingdom and throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to Kongu Nadu, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the Middle East and to southern Europe. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the Karur and Coimabtore districts. Their ancient capital was Vanchi Muthur or modern Karur. King Senguttuvan was the most famous and powerful Chera king.
Origins
In the Sangam Tamil lexicon the word Chera meaning "hill country", derived from Cheral, meaning "declivity or mountain slope" in Classical Tamil language The sources available regarding the early Chera Kings are the anthologies of Sangam literature, coins from Kongu Nadu and other literature. The Chera country had four Vanchis (capitals), the prime at Karur and the later ones at Dharapuram, Mulanur and Vilangil Rasipuram. The Chera and Chola Nadu were separated by the Karaipottanaru and Madukkarai wall.
The Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas are the three ruling dynasties of the southern region (Bharatavarsha) in the Hindu epic of the Ramayana.[2][3] They are also mentioned in the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they take the side of the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War.[4][5][6][7] Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the name Ketalaputho who were outside Ashoka's empire in 261 BC. Pliny, the Roman historian of the 1st century, who probably visited Kerala, called the area Caelobothras in his Natural History.[8] The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as Cerobothra whose capital is Karur.
Archaeology has found epigraphic evidence of the early Cheras in the recorded history of South India:[9] some inscriptions trace the dynasty from the Puranic kings of the Lunar dynasty. The most important inscription is that at Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) which refers to three generations of Chera Rulers; Athan Cheral Irumporai, his son Perumkadungo and his grandson Ilamkadungo when Perumkadungo was ruler and Ilamkadungo appointed prince.
Sangam literature is full of names of kings and princes, along with the poets who extolled them but these are not worked into connected history so far and the chronology is not settled. Their then capital is believed to be modern Karur in Tamil Nadu.
The Satyaputras are an offshoot of the Chera dynasty and they ruled the opposite bank of the Kaveri which was called Mazha Kongu Nadu.
History
The origin and seat of the Sangam period Cheras is Kongu Nadu.[10][11] Chera is also referred to as Kongan many times. His mountains are the Kolli Malais and his seat Karuvur on the banks of Anporunai.
The Chera, Chola and Pandya are traditional Tamil siblings and descendants of the Kings of ancient Tamilakam, Chera and Pandya meaning old country, Cheras ruled Kongu Nadu, Chola meaning new country. The Cholas ruled in the eastern Coromandel Coast and the Pandyas in the South Central Peninsula. Chera rulers engaged in frequent intermarriage as well as warfare with the Pandyas and Cholas.
In early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and the Kings are in the following order:
- Imayavaramban Kudako Nedum Cheralathan
- Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan
- Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral (son of Nedum Cheralathan)
- Chenkuttuvan Cheran or Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan (son of Nedum Cheralathan)
- Attu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan (son of Nedum Cheralathan)
- Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan
- Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai
- Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai
His queen was Veliyan Nallini. Their son Imayavaramban Kudako Nedum Cheralathan is praised in the second pathu of Pathirruppaththu, the pathikam of this decade refers to his parents, though they are not praised in the first pathu which is blank. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan, while the mother of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola Princess Manikilli. Chelva Kadunko Vazhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral Irumporai and Porayan Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son of Aazhiyathan and Ilam Cheral Irumporai was the son of a Chera ruler Kuttuvan Irumporai,son of Mantharan Cheral Irumporai, the celebrated ancestor of ninth King Ilam Cheral Irumporai.
Illango Atikal wrote the legendary epic Silapathikararam sitting at a Jain monastery in Trikkanamathilakam. Silapathikararam describes the Chera king Senguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (Veerakallu) for the Goddess Pattini. 'Purananuru' refers to a certain Udiyan Cheral. It is said that he fed the rival armies during the Kurukshetra war. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, another Sangam Age King claimed to have conquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his emblem on the face of the mountains. Senguttuvan was another famous Chera, whose contemporary Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka of Lanka according to Mahavamsa visited the Chera country.[12] Manimekalai written by Chathanar describes the city of Vanchi as Buddhist centre.
Extent and trade
The early Cheras controlled a large territory of the Kongu Nadu region. They also ruled the Kodunthamizh regions of Travancore (Venadu) and the Malabar (Kudanadu) west coast through a viceroy [10] who oversaw the local kshatris.
Throughout the era trade continued to bring prosperity to the area with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia.Sangam Chera coins are found in Karur, Namakkal, Erode, Dindigul and Coimbatore regions of modern-day Tamil Nadu. These foreigners were called Yavana in the ancient times</ref> Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) from Malainadu.[13] Musiri has been referred to by the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an inland port probably near Musiri.
Religion
It is believed that the Cheras were Shaivite Hindus .[14] Some kings of the dynasty referred to themselves as Vanavaramban, Imayavaramban etc.[15] While Cheras had their own 'Kottravai' (Kali) as Madukkarai Sellandiyamman. Other religious traditions like Jainism and Buddhism came to this area during the period of the Chera Kings.
List of kings
Sangam Age Chera Kings
- Perumchottu Uthiyan Cheralathan (Contemporary to Karikala Chola)
- Antuvancheral
- Imayavaramban Nedun-Cheralatan or Imayavaramban Kudako Nedum Cheralathan (Son of Uthiyan Cheralathan)
- Cheran Chenkutuvan or Senguttuvan
- Palyanai Sel-Kelu Kuttuvan
- Poraiyan Kadungo
- Kalankai-Kanni Narmudi Cheral
- Vel-Kelu Kuttuvan
- Selvak-Kadungo
- Adukotpattu Cheralatan
- Kuttuvan Irumporai
- Tagadur Erinda Perumcheral
- Yanaikat-sey Mantaran Cheral
- Ilamcheral Irumporai
- Perumkadungo
- Ilamkadungo
- Kanaikal Irumporai
Bhakti era Cheras
Kulashekhara Alwar and Cheraman Perumal (Nayanar) are famous Bhakti era Cheras.
Notes
- ^ http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-pRNIffvzoII/TZwHynIIPwI/AAAAAAAABIE/IOunDaXTaGk/s1600/knl+%25282%2529.jpeg
- ^ "The Ramayana and Mahabharata: Book VII: In the Nilgiri Mountains". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ V.Jayaram (2007-01-09). "The Ramayana Kishkindha". Hinduwebsite.com. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "Britannica Article on Dravidian". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 2004-01-09. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "Mahabharata: The Great War and World History". Bvashram.org. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "The Sampradaya Sun - Independent Vaisnava News - Feature Stories - October 2007". Harekrsna.com. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ Cerobothra
- ^ See report in Frontline, June/July 2003
- ^ a b http://books.google.co.in/books?id=FnB3k8fx5oEC&pg=PA156&dq=coimbatore+salem+chera+sovereign&hl=en&ei=GTOgTcriOonxrQfO0aj-Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=coimbatore%20salem%20chera%20sovereign&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=FnB3k8fx5oEC&pg=PA230&dq=chera+nerumangalam&hl=en&ei=bTOgTY-hJcyHrAfig9n0Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=chera%20nerumangalam&f=false
- ^ See Mahavamsa – http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since Senguttuvan (Kadal pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka he was the Chera King during 170–185 AD.
- ^ http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&
- ^ P. 104 Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological Association By Indian Anthropological Association
- ^ P. 15 The Ācārya, Śaṅkara of Kāladī: A Story By Savita R. Bhave, M. G. Gyaltsan, Muṣṭafá Amīn, 1933– Madugula, I S Madugula
See also
Kongu Nadu Cheraman Perumal Ilango Adigal
References
- Mahavidwan R.Raghava Iyengar, Vanjimanagar (1918, 1932) University of Madras
- Inscriptions of India – Complete listing of historical inscriptions from Indian temples and monuments
- Tamil Coins, R. Nagasamy – http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.html
- A magnum opus on Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions – Book review – http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm
- Mahavamsa – http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/
- Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II – http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscription.htm
- Asoka's Rock Edicts – http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/AshokanEdicts/rockedicts.htm